Complex problems, with an unknown answer, for which no single entity has the resources or authority to bring about the necessary change. For example, reforming public education. (Kania & Kramer, 2011)

An angel investor is an early-stage investor in a startup. These investors provide seed money, usually in exchange for ownership equity in the company. (Ganti, 2025)

Conditions or obstacles that impede progress, access, participation, or achievement of an intended result. (Lewin, 1947)

For-profit businesses with a certified social impact mission supported by transparency and accountability requirements. In this case, “b” stands for benefit. The nonprofit B Lab administers the certification. (Boyea-Robinson, 2015)

B-Corp Certification measures a company’s social and environmental performance at every level: supply chain, workers, customers, charitable giving, etc. (B Lab, n.d.)

An assessment of investment performance that considers financial returns together with social and environmental value. (Emerson, 2003)

A conceptual framework for advancing a vision of value creation which is not based upon a bifurcated understanding of the nature of value (either/or), but rather a unified, holistic understanding of value as “both/and,” integrated and non-divisible. (Emerson, 2011)

Compare to Shared Value

A framework holding that organizations and investments inherently create an inseparable blend of economic, social, and environmental value. (Emerson, 2003)

Groups elected or appointed to oversee an organization’s affairs, provide strategic direction, and hold management accountable. (Fama & Jensen, 1983)

A consumer’s overall favorable or unfavorable evaluation of a brand. (Keller, 1993)

The perceived compatibility or connection between a company or brand and the social cause it supports. (Pracejus & Olsen, 2004)

Business efforts to promote, impede, or direct social, political, economic, and/or environmental reform or stasis with the desire to promote or impede improvements in society. (Sarkar & Kotler, 2018)

The coordinated process of building, maintaining, and improving how a brand is positioned and perceived. (Keller, 1993)

In the summaries, a nonstandard label for a business orientation that weighs the well-being of employees, customers, communities, and other stakeholders alongside commercial considerations. (Carroll, 1991)

The application of moral reasoning to matters that arise in corporate life. (Skeet, n.d.)

An entity structured to conduct commercial or professional activity, including its ownership, governance, and operating arrangements. (OpenStax, 2023)

An in-depth investigation of a bounded person, group, organization, event, program, or situation in its real-world context. (Yin, 2018)

A form of marketing where a company and a nonprofit organization partner to create both social change and business value for the company. (Financial Times, n.d.)Item description

Industrial system that is restorative or regenerative by intention and design. (World Economic Forum, n.d.)

Item description

A Corporate Social Responsibility strategy in which a company chooses two or more clusters or issues to support that match the organization’s core values. (Roza, 2017a)

See also Coalition Strategy, Diffuse Strategy, and Focused Strategy.

A Corporate Social Responsibility strategy in which several parties enter into a partnership to address a specific issue. (Roza, 2017a)

See also Cluster Strategy, Diffuse Strategy, and Focused Strategy.

Innovation developed through collaboration among multiple people, organizations, or sectors that combine knowledge and resources. (von Hippel, 2005)

A model of philanthropy originating in China that directs and mobilizes individuals’ collective economic, political, and social capital to address social needs. The model is based on three pillars: cognition (seeing selves as part of a community), action (assuming a collective responsibility), and investment (collective visions for both current and future actions). (Marquis, Qi, & Qiao, n.d.)

Money collected by people in a community to help other community members. (Cambridge Dictionary, n.d.)

Organizations such as banks, credit unions, loan funds, or venture capital providers that share a common goal of expanding economic opportunity in low-income communities by providing access to financial products and services for local residents and businesses. (CDFI Fund, n.d.)

The process of working collaboratively with community members and organizations to identify priorities, make decisions, and carry out solutions. (Ahmed & Palermo, 2010)

Community impact refers to the positive or negative effects that individuals, organizations, or initiatives have on the well-being, culture, environment, and economy of a community. Positive community impact promotes resilience, enhances resources, and helps to create sustainable, thriving environments. Negative community impact, on the other hand, can lead to resource depletion, social tension, and economic instability.

https://b-dreams.com/what-is-community-impact-and-why-does-it-matter/

In the community-focused case summary, an initiative whose design and delivery are guided by local needs, knowledge, experiences, and priorities. (Ettinger et al., 2021)

A specific, observable move by a firm intended to improve or defend its position relative to competitors. (Chen & MacMillan, 1992)

A type of Corporate Foundation with low independence from the affiliated company, dependent on them for funds and personnel, and likely shares the same name as the company. (Roza, 2017b, 3:00)

Compare to Enhancing Corporate Foundations, Integral Corporate Foundations, and Sovereign Corporate Foundations.

The study of how individuals or groups select, purchase, use, and dispose of products, services, ideas, or experiences. (Schiffman & Wisenblit, 2010)

A consumer’s psychological attachment to a company based on a substantial overlap between their perceptions of themselves and their perceptions of the company. (Marin, Ruiz, & Rubio, 2008)

A consumer’s awareness of and familiarity with a company’s social-responsibility policies, activities, and record. (Du & Sen, 2010)

A consumer’s willingness to rely on a company or brand based on expectations of competence, honesty, and dependable conduct. (Morgan & Hunt, 1994)

The fit between an initiative and the distinctive skills, knowledge, resources, or capabilities that an organization performs especially well. (Prahalad & Hamel, 1990)

The actions, practices, and decision patterns through which a corporation conducts its business and interacts with stakeholders. (Wood, 1991)

The notion that corporations have an obligation to society as a whole, not just to investors, employees, or customers. (Makarov, 2018)

A form of Corporate Social Responsibility concerned with investing in and improving the broader community through social programs for which company employees can volunteer. (Roza, Meijs, & Verlegh, 2013)

The system of relationships, rules, and processes through which companies are directed, controlled, and held accountable. (Shleifer & Vishny, 1997)

Independent, legal, nonprofit entities set up by companies with structural contributions or endowments to focus on a public benefit mission. (Roza, 2017e, 0:22)

The extent to which a corporation achieves its financial, operational, strategic, social, or environmental objectives. (Venkatraman & Ramanujam, 1986)

Donation of resources towards a social good, on the behalf of a company. (Lazzari, 2018)

Moves of a company’s headquarters, offices, facilities, or operations from one geographic location to another. (Hu et al., 2025)

The collective assessment stakeholders form about a company based on its past actions, communications, and expected future behavior. (Fombrun & Shanley, 1990)

In the social-media communication summary, a company’s visible reply or other action following a stakeholder’s public message, question, criticism, or allegation. (Etter & Colleoni, 2019)

A company’s accountability for the effects of its decisions and activities on society, the environment, and stakeholders. (Carroll, 1991)

A form of Corporate Social Responsibility where businesses use money or resources for projects that improve the world around them without a direct financial benefit to the company. (Kuta, 2018)

The observable policies, processes, and outcomes through which a company manages its social responsibilities and stakeholder relationships. (Wood, 1991)

A company’s commitment to improving or enhancing community well-being through discretionary contributions of corporate resources. (Roza, 2016)

There are five dimensions of CSR: Environment, Social, Economic, Stakeholder, Volunteerism. (Dahlsrud, 2008)

Communication through which a company explains its social-responsibility policies, actions, performance, and stakeholder commitments. (Du & Sen, 2010)

A business approach that seeks durable economic performance while managing environmental and social impacts over the long term. (World Commission on Environment and Development., 1987)

Similar to Corporate Social Responsibility. Aims to integrate the economic, environmental, and social aspects of business management. (Weber, 2008)

Employer-supported participation by employees in unpaid activities that benefit communities or charitable organizations. (Rodell, 2013)

The quality of being believable, trustworthy, and worthy of confidence. (Tingen et al., 2014)

A model for assessing the compatibility between employer and employee social responsibility within individual organizations:

• Low social responsibility: neither employees nor employer care about social responsibility

• Identity-based social responsibility: organizations and employees perceive and project themselves as socially responsible while taking little or no action to support this

• Behavior-based social responsibility: high levels of involvement in socially responsible behavior without adopting the corresponding identity

• Entwined social responsibility: identities and behaviors are aligned for both employer and employee

(Pathania, 2015)

The CSRD is European Union (EU) legislation, effective from 5 January 2023, that requires EU businesses, including qualifying EU subsidiaries of non-EU companies, to disclose their environmental and social impacts and how their environmental, social and governance (ESG) actions affect their business.

https://www.ibm.com/think/topics/csrd

The extent to which a company relies on its Corporate Social Responsibility activities to position itself, relative to the competition, in the minds of the consumers. (Du, Bhattacharya, & Sen, 2010)

A customer’s sustained preference for, commitment to, or repeated purchasing from a particular company or brand. (Oliver, 1999)

A tool that can be used to measure Corporate Social Responsibility performance; usually includes community impact, financial results, and stakeholder influence. (Frumkin, 2017b, 1:52)

See also: Scorecard

A model of Corporate Social Responsibility where activities are linked to the organization’s identity, core values, and/or purpose. (Roza, 2017b, 0:32)

See also: Instrumental Model and Normative Model

A Corporate Social Responsibility strategy in which a company focuses efforts on needs or interests of certain stakeholders. (Roza, 2017a)

See also Cluster Strategy, Coalition Strategy, and Focused Strategy.

In the social-media summary, the connected users and communication channels through which CSR information and public reactions are redistributed and amplified. (Kane & Borgatti, 2014)

Employees’ judgments about whether the benefits and burdens of a company’s responsible or irresponsible conduct are distributed fairly. (Rupp & Williams, 2006)

Philanthropic vehicle managed by wide variety of public charity sponsors that allow donors to retain advisory rights. Donors establish and fund a charitable account with a sponsoring organization that will be used later to support charitable activities. Donors receive an immediate tax deduction and maintain advisory privileges over both the fund’s investments and ultimate distribution for charitable purposes. In return, the sponsor gains control and authority over management of the funds. Can be used in conjunction with impact investing. (Macpherson, Kearney, & Kulow, 2018)

A body of individuals, groups, or companies with an action-oriented aim. The concept evolved from the idea of a think tank.

Global index consisting of the top 10% of the largest 2,500 stocks in the S&P Global Broad Market Index based on their sustainability and environmental practices. (Chen, 2022)

A model in which Corporate Social Responsibility is seen as a voluntary commitment by companies to public welfare and nation building. (Handy, 2017, 0:54)

Compare to Liberal Model, Stakeholder Model, and Statist Model.

A positive, work-related state characterized by employees’ involvement, energy, and commitment to their work and organization. (Kahn, 1990)

Models for engaging employees with Corporate Social Responsibility:

• Transactional Approach – Approach to employee engagement where programs are undertaken to meet the needs and interests of employees who want to take part in socially responsible efforts of a company

• Relational Approach – Approach to employee engagement where an organization and its employees together make a commitment to social responsibility

• Developmental Approach – Approach to employee engagement where a company aims to more fully activate and develop its employees and the firm to produce greater value for business and society
  (Mirvis, 2012)

Human resources model to describe the stages a worker undergoes (prospective employee, new employee, established employee, former employee) and how Corporate Social Responsibility can facilitate one’s progression through the stages. (Roza, 2017d, 1:35)

When an employer matches or donates the same amount an employee donates to a charity of the employee’s choice. See also: Matching Gifts

The involvement of employees in workplace decisions, problem-solving, improvement activities, or organizational programs. (Cotton & Jennings, 1988)

An organization’s ability and efforts to keep employees and reduce unwanted turnover. (Hom & Hausknecht, 2017)

The combination of rewards, benefits, experiences, culture, and opportunities an employer offers in exchange for employees’ skills and contributions. (Backhaus & Tikoo, 2004)

Instances of involvement, interaction, participation, or commitment between people or organizations. (Kahn, 1990)

A type of Corporate Foundation that is highly independent from affiliated company. The foundation typically has a strong relationship to the company’s core business and acts as the company’s independent partner. (Roza, 2017b, 4:56)

Compare to Complementary Corporate Foundations, Integral Corporate Foundations, and Sovereign Corporate Foundations.

Measurable results concerning an organization’s management of environmental impacts, resources, emissions, waste, and compliance. (Henri & Journeault, 2010)

A broad breakdown in ethical judgment, controls, and conduct that allows serious wrongdoing to become normalized or systemic. (Ashforth & Anand, 2003)

A family of statistical methods used to analyze whether and when an event occurs over time. (Allison, 1984)

The salary, incentives, equity awards, benefits, and other remuneration provided to senior corporate leaders. (Jensen & Murphy, 1990)

Stakeholder beliefs about the moral principles and standards that should guide business decisions and conduct. (Donaldson & Dunfee, 1994)

Beliefs about the ethical, social, or environmental responsibilities customers should consider in their purchasing and consumption choices. (Woldeyohanis, 2025)

Corporate Social Responsibility efforts directed toward factors outside the firm: environment, local community, customers, suppliers, etc. (Hameed, Riaz, Arain, & Farooq, 2016)

A measure of how effectively a business generates revenue, profit, returns, and financial value from its assets and operations. (McGuire & Schneeweis, 1988)

Gains or losses produced by an investment, commonly expressed as income, appreciation, or a percentage of the amount invested. (Horrigan, 1968)

Company attributes—such as size, industry, ownership, resources, governance, and financial condition—used in the summaries to explain differences in CSR behavior or outcomes. (McWilliams & Siegel, 2001)

Knowledge and skills specific to an organization. (Bird, 2017c, 11:12)

A Corporate Social Responsibility strategy in which a company links their CSR to their core business. (Roza, 2017a)

See also Cluster Strategy, Coalition Strategy, and Diffuse Strategy.

A new organizational sector integrating social purposes with business methods; also referred to as “for-benefit.” (Fourth Sector.net, n.d.) This sector joins for-profit, nonprofit and governmental organizations as the “fourth sector” of the economy.

Giving Tuesday, often described as a global day of giving or a global generosity movement, is held each year on the Tuesday after Thanksgiving. On Giving Tuesday 2021, nonprofits in the U.S. alone raised $2.7 billion. The giving movement is also sometimes stylized as GivingTuesday or #GivingTuesday.

https://kindful.com/giving-tuesday

Collaborative arrangements involving organizations or sectors from different countries to pursue shared objectives. (Austin, 2000)

Breakdowns in oversight, accountability, controls, transparency, or decision-making that prevent an organization from being properly directed and monitored. (Aguilera & Jackson, 2003)

In the corporate-foundation summary, board and leadership ties that connect a foundation’s governance to its parent company and help align strategy, oversight, and resources. (Shleifer & Vishny, 1997)

The study and practice of managing interpersonal relationships, communication, motivation, and cooperation in organizations. (Mayo, 1933)

The organizational function concerned with recruiting, developing, rewarding, supporting, and retaining employees. (Wright & McMahan, 1992)

Organizational models that intentionally combine commercial revenue and market practices with a social or environmental mission. (Battilana & Lee, 2014)

The perceived consistency and clarity among the different traits, values, messages, and actions that make up an organization’s identity. (Albert & Whetten, 1985)

What stakeholders know or believe they know about an organization’s defining characteristics and values. (Albert & Whetten, 1985)

The degree to which an organization’s stated identity is perceived as honest, dependable, and supported by its conduct. (Albert & Whetten, 1985)

A person’s voluntary responsibility to consider and address the social and environmental effects of personal choices and actions. (Pongrácz et al., 2026)

Investments made with the intention to generate positive, measurable social and environmental impact alongside a financial return. (Global Impact Investing Network, n.d.)

On-going or continuous Corporate Social Responsibility efforts that are a regular part of the day-to-day operations of a business. (Pirsch, Gupta, & Grau, 2007)

A model of Corporate Social Responsibility in which CSR activities are linked to a company’s strategy and innovation. (Roza, 2017b, 2:29)

See also: Descriptive Model and Normative Model

A Corporate Foundation with low independence from the affiliated company. The foundation operates similarly to a Corporate Social Responsibility department at a company and activities are fully controlled by the company. (Roza, 2017b, 4:07)

Compare to Complementary Corporate Foundation, Enhancing Corporate Foundation, and Sovereign Corporate Foundation.

Combines a concern for the law with an emphasis on managerial responsibility for ethical behavior; goes above and beyond compliance for compliance’s sake and speaks to the deeply held values of the organization; may involve the use of “integrity initiatives” rather than a “legal compliance initiative.” (Paine, 1994)

Employees’ perceptions of whether people are treated with dignity, respect, honesty, and appropriate explanation in CSR-related interactions. (Rupp & Williams, 2006)

Corporate Social Responsibility efforts directed toward factors within the firm. (Hameed, Riaz, Arain, & Farooq, 2016)

The degree to which a company undertakes value-creating investments while avoiding both underinvestment and overinvestment. (Biddle & Verdi, 2009)

Approach oriented toward finding and funding a solution embodied within a single organization, combined with the hope that the most effective organizations will grow or replicate to extend their impact more widely. (Kania & Kramer, 2011)

Compare to Collective Impact.

An employee’s overall positive or negative evaluation of a job and its conditions. (Locke, 1976)

A Corporate Social Responsibility model focused on the needs of its private owners and shareholders; favors economic privatization and deregulation. (Handy, 2017, 1:50)

Compare to Ethical Trusteeship Model, Statist Model, andStakeholder Model.

A structured synthesis and critical evaluation of existing scholarship relevant to a defined research question or topic. (Snyder, 2019)

A simplification of a model, program, initiative, or intervention; a schematic representation, or road map, of what the program is going to do and how. (Frumkin, 2017c, 0:30)

A business ranking system created by the Drucker Institute comparing the performance of major U.S. companies; uses quantitative measurements of the efficacy of a company’s management through a holistic approach considering five core principles: customer satisfaction, employee engagement and development, innovation, social responsibility, and financial strength. (Fuhrmans & Koh, 2017)

The results a company, product, or investment achieves in a market, such as sales, market share, growth, profitability, or investor returns. (Venkatraman & Ramanujam, 1986)

A donation made by a company to a nonprofit or charitable cause that “matches” an employee’s donation.

See also: Employee Matching

Meaningful participation: The proactive involvement of community members, particularly those from historically excluded groups, in guiding decisions, setting agendas, and distributing resources that impact their daily lives. Participation goes beyond mere consultation to ensure that these groups gain significantly more control over the processes and outcomes that affect them.

https://philanthropyinpractice.issuelab.org/resources/44340/44340.pdf

Reporting, commentary, or attention devoted to a person, organization, event, or issue by news and other media outlets. (Deephouse, 2000)

Parameters or measures of quantitative assessment used for measurement, comparison, or to track performance or production. (Kenton, 2018b)

Public accountability created through small, observable digital interactions in which stakeholders question firms and firms choose whether and how to respond. (Etter & Colleoni, 2019)

A type of banking service provided to low-income individuals or groups who otherwise wouldn't have access to financial services.  (Kagan, 2025)

The use of brief social-media posts to disclose, describe, or discuss a company’s CSR activities and performance. (Etter & Colleoni, 2019)

Improper, unethical, or unlawful behavior, especially behavior that violates applicable duties, rules, or professional standards. (Greve & Pozner, 2010)

A statistical model in which the size or direction of an indirect effect depends on the level of another variable. (Preacher & Hayes, 2007)

Legitimacy, trust, or reputational credit accumulated through conduct viewed as ethical and socially beneficial. (Godfrey, 2005)

A government’s officially adopted principles, priorities, or courses of action for addressing an issue at the national level. (Howlett & Perl, 2009)

Corporate actions or omissions that harm stakeholders or violate accepted social, ethical, or environmental expectations. (Lange & Washburn, 2012)

In the corporate-relocation summary, the local network of interdependent nonprofits, corporate funders, board members, donors, volunteers, and public institutions that sustains community services. (Salamon, 1995)

A model of Corporate Social Responsibility in which CSR activities are linked to pressure from stakeholders: government, consumers, investors, employees, etc. (Roza, 2017b, 3:38)

See also: Descriptive Model and Instrumental Model

The deliberate arrangement of roles, responsibilities, structures, workflows, authority, and coordination within an organization. (Galbraith, 1974)

The tasks, processes, programs, and operations carried out by an organization to pursue its objectives. (Galbraith, 1974)

The degree to which a prospective employee views an organization as a desirable place to work. (Backhaus & Tikoo, 2004)

The shared values, assumptions, norms, and practices that shape how members of an organization think and behave. (Scott et al., 2003)

Planned actions introduced to change organizational structures, processes, culture, behavior, or performance. (Beer & Spector, 1990)

Employees’ perceptions of fairness in workplace outcomes, procedures, and interpersonal treatment. (Colquitt, 2001)

The measurable results produced by an organization, including financial, operational, employee, customer, social, and environmental results. (Venkatraman & Ramanujam, 1986)

Research designs that observe the same units or participants on multiple occasions to analyze change over time. (Menard, 2002)

‍Participatory philanthropy: An approach to philanthropy that involves engaging non-donor stakeholders, particularly those from excluded communities, in various aspects of the grantmaking process, such as strategy development, funds distribution, and evaluation. It encompasses a range of activities designed to redistribute power, control, and influence, fostering partnerships and shared decision-making between philanthropic organizations and the communities they serve.

https://philanthropyinpractice.issuelab.org/resources/44340/44340.pdf

A program through which employees authorize charitable donations to be deducted directly from their pay. (Bennett, 2012)

The extent to which a person believes personal values are compatible with an organization’s values. (Cable & DeRue, 2002)

When an individual and the work environment characteristics are well matched. (Roza, 2017c, 0:30)

See also Value Congruence.

Voluntary action or giving intended to promote the welfare of others or advance the public good. (Bekkers & Wiepking, 2011)

Voluntary corporate policies and actions intended to benefit stakeholders and create favorable social or environmental outcomes. (Carroll, 1991)

Employees’ judgments about whether the processes used to select and implement CSR decisions are fair, consistent, unbiased, and ethical. (Rupp & Williams, 2006)

A series of related actions or steps directed toward a particular result. (Van de Ven, 1992)

Representations that show how activities, decisions, inputs, or events are connected within a process. (Van de Ven, 1992)

The objective of choosing output, pricing, investment, or operating decisions that produce the greatest attainable profit. (Friedman, n.d.)

Corporate Social Responsibility strategies that happen at specific times to specifically appeal to a consumer stakeholder group. (Pirsch, Gupta, & Grau, 2007)

The confidence members of the public place in an institution’s competence, integrity, fairness, and reliability. (Mayer & Schoorman, 1995)

Value consumed collectively by the citizenry rather than just clients or consumers of a business; public goods that are jointly consumed. (ANZSOG, 2017)

In the social-media summary, publicly visible messages, questions, criticism, or feedback directed by individuals or stakeholder groups to a company. (Etter & Colleoni, 2019)

Purpose is an abiding intention to achieve a long-term goal that is both personally meaningful and makes a positive mark on the world

https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/topic/purpose/definition

A purpose statement, sometimes called a "position statement," is a sentence that describes a company's focus as it pertains to its audience, whether that’s clients, customers, patients or any other group or demographic. A purpose statement describes the overarching reason that a company exists, how it should conduct itself and the impact it has on who it's serving.

https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/purpose-statements

Qualitative Comparative Analysis, a set-theoretic method for identifying combinations of conditions associated with an outcome across cases. (Pagliarin et al., 2023)

The Reputation Institute’s (RI) Corporate Social Responsibility scoring system that evaluates consumers’ perceptions of company governance, positive influence on society and treatment of employees. (Strauss, 2017)

The accumulated value and stakeholder goodwill created by a history of credible, responsible, and reliable behavior. (Fombrun, 1996)

Systematic procedures used to collect, analyze, and interpret evidence in order to answer research questions. (Bhattacherjee, 2012)

Corporate conduct that recognizes a company as a member of society with economic, legal, ethical, and community responsibilities. (Carroll, 1991)

A profitability ratio comparing net income with total assets to indicate how efficiently assets generate earnings. (Horrigan, 1968)

A profitability ratio comparing net income with shareholders’ equity to indicate the return generated on owners’ capital. (Horrigan, 1968)

A measure comparing the gain or loss from an investment with the amount invested, usually expressed as a percentage. (Horrigan, 1968)

A profitability measure comparing operating profit with sales revenue. (Horrigan, 1968)

The state of being content because needs, expectations, or desired outcomes have been met. (Oliver, 1980)

The capacity of a system, organization, program, or business model to expand while maintaining acceptable performance and effectiveness. (Winter & Szulanski, 2001)

A tool that can be used to measure Corporate Social Responsibility performance; usually includes community impact, financial results, and stakeholder influence. (Frumkin, 2017b, 1:52)

See also: Dashboard

The financial and governance interests of people or entities that own shares in a corporation. (Jensen, 2002)

A management strategy in which companies find business opportunities in social problems; rather than focusing on “giving back” or minimizing harm, shared value focuses leaders on maximizing competitive value of solving social problems in new customers and markets, cost savings, talent retention, and more. (Shared Value Initiative, n.d.)

Compare to Blended Value

Actions taken by an organization or business to intentionally communicate positive, imperceptible qualities of themselves. (Connelly, Certo, Ireland, & Reutzel, 2011)

An attitude of doubt or a tendency to question whether a claim, motive, or representation is reliable. (Forehand & Grier, 2003)

A financial award for social entrepreneurs whose innovations have had a significant, proven impact on the world’s pressing problems, given to invest directly in the promise of greater impact at scale. (Skoll Foundation, n.d.)

Acronym standing for Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant and Time-based; a tool used to create actionable plans for realistic goal achievement. (Zahorsky, 2020)

Explanations, excuses, justifications, or apologies organizations provide to explain conduct and influence how stakeholders judge it. (Sitkin & Bies, 1993)

The networks, relationships, shared norms, and trust that enable people and groups to cooperate and obtain mutual benefits. (Adler & Kwon, 2002)

Enterprise where at least 50% of the profits are invested back into a charitable cause; sometimes referred to as a social business. (Agarwal, 2018)

A social enterprise model identifying an unjust equilibrium in society and finding opportunity in it to forge a new, stable equilibrium that releases trapped potential or alleviates the suffering of the targeted group, ensuring a better future for the targeted group and even society at large. (Martin & Osberg, 2007)

A significant, positive change addressing a pressing social challenge. (Business+Impact at Michigan Ross, n.d.)

Leveraging private investment to finance services so providers do not have to front the cost of delivery. Investors are rewarded if providers meet agreed-upon outcomes but lose their investment if providers do not meet those outcomes. (Roy, McHugh, & Sinclair, 2018)

Intra-corporate entrepreneurial behavior with a social purpose such as developing a profitable new product, service, or business model that creates value for society and the company. (Jenkins, 2018)

The influence and communication value a person or organization possesses through social-media visibility, reach, relationships, and credibility. (Saxton & Guo, 2020)

Mutual funds that hold securities in companies that adhere to social, moral, religious, or environmental beliefs. (Croome, 2022)

A systematic way of incorporating social, environmental, economic, and other values into decision-making processes. (Salverda, n.d)

The generation of benefits for society or stakeholders by addressing social needs, improving well-being, or reducing harm. (Austin & Wei-Skillern, 2006)

Investment in ventures that offer profit potential and make the world a better place through their products and services. (Kenton, 2019a)

A Corporate Foundation that is highly independent from the affiliated company; operates similarly to a private grant-making foundation without a dominant living donor. (Roza, 2017b, 3:40)

Compare to Complementary Corporate Foundation, Enhancing Corporate Foundation, and Integral Corporate Foundation.

Corporate Social Responsibility in the context of socialist, mixed economies, with a focus on state-owned companies and legal requirements that influence CSR.  (Handy, 2017, 1:19)

Compare to Ethical Trusteeship Model, Liberal Model, and Stakeholder Model.

The process of identifying stakeholders and involving them through consultation, dialogue, participation, or partnership in relevant decisions. (Kujala et al., 2022)

Corporate Social Responsibility in the context of globalization, with a focus on citizen and stakeholder activism, large participation by nongovernmental organizations; Model of CSR that responds to the needs of all stakeholders (i.e., customers, employees, and communities). (Handy, 2017, 2:14)

Compare to Ethical Trusteeship Model, Liberal Model, and Statist Model.

View that management of a corporation has a duty to maximize shareholder returns (also known as shareholder theory). (Hunsaker, 2018)

See also Stakeholder Theory

The development of new approaches, business models, capabilities, or market positions that materially change how an organization creates value. (Markides, 1997)

The formulation and implementation of major goals and actions based on organizational capabilities and the external environment. (Nag & Chen, 2007)

Conceptual frameworks used to analyze choices, allocate resources, and guide an organization toward long-term objectives. (Nag & Chen, 2007)

Meeting present needs while preserving environmental, social, and economic systems and opportunities for future generations. (World Commission on Environment and Development., 1987)

The quality of being concrete, observable, measurable, or capable of being physically perceived. (Laroche & Goutaland, 2001)

Problems that are well defined, the answer is known in advance, and one or a few organizations have the ability to implement the solution. (Kania & Kramer, 2011) Compare to Adaptive Social Problems.

A body of experts producing ideas and research.

The group of senior executives whose backgrounds, values, and judgments strongly influence organizational strategy and outcomes. (Carpenter et al., 2004)

Sustainability framework examining a company’s social, environmental, and economic impact. (Kenton, 2025)

Trust-Based Philanthropy: An approach to giving that addresses the inherent power imbalances between funders, nonprofits, and the communities they serve. At its core, trust-based philanthropy is about redistributing power— systemically, organizationally, and interpersonally—in service of a healthier and more equitable nonprofit ecosystem.

https://pacscenter.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/2021/10

See also Ethical Trusteeship Model. A model in which Corporate Social Responsibility is seen as a voluntary commitment by companies to public welfare and nation building. (Handy, 2017, 0:54) Compare to Liberal Model, Stakeholder Model, and Statist Model.

Text, images, reviews, videos, or other material created and shared by users rather than by the company or platform hosting it. (Daugherty & Bright, 2008)

The increase in worth created when an organization transforms inputs into products, services, or outcomes. (Bowman & Ambrosini, 2000)

When employees and their employer have similar social responsibility patterns based on their social responsible values and behavior. (Roza, 2017c, 1:00)

The process of producing benefits or utility for customers, owners, employees, communities, or other stakeholders. (Bowman & Ambrosini, 2000)

A leadership and organizational method that builds upon deeply held values and aspirations that motivate employees to act towards a higher social good, help build a better society, and engage with broader communities; sets the foundation for Corporate Social Responsibility to grow upon. (Bird, 2017b, 0:11)

The way in which businesses abide by the four core values of business ethics, Corporate Social Responsibility, human rights, and sustainability to make a difference in the community and their society. (Bird, 2017a, 11:37)

A blanket term describing forms of philanthropy that express a more purpose-, results-, and responsibility-driven worldview. Usual characteristics include:

• Strategic framing which coordinates targeted resources so they collectively create systemic change

• Scales of intervention that address systems and sectors rather than individual organizations or projects

• Sector focuses that tend to be cross-sectoral, engaging civil society, markets, and/or governments as needed

• Funding mechanisms that blend grants and investments as appropriate to the theory of change

• Hands-on engagement styles using extended interactions with and between grantees

• Engagement periods reflecting the goal of systems change, often five to ten years rather than one to two

• Culture and capabilities focused on innovation and experimentation

• Monitoring and evaluation that allows quick adaptation and focuses on outcomes and impacts

‍Virtual volunteering refers to volunteer activities completed, in whole or in part, using the internet and a home, school building, telecenter, or work computer or other Internet-connected device, such as a tablet. Virtual volunteering is also known as online volunteering, remote volunteering or e-volunteering.

https://ngofeed.com/blog/virtual-volunteering/#google_vignette